This is a multi-part message in MIME format.
------=_NextPart_000_0038_01C5909A.C8048570
Content-Type: multipart/alternative;
boundary="----=_NextPart_001_0039_01C5909A.C8048570"
------=_NextPart_001_0039_01C5909A.C8048570
Content-Type: text/plain;
charset="iso-8859-1"
Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable
=20
Click here: Great Purge -- Facts, Info, and Encyclopedia article=20
=20
[Categories: Soviet history, Soviet phraseology, Soviet political =
repressions]
The Great Purge is the name given to campaigns of repression in the (A =
former communist country in eastern Europe and northern Asia; =
established in 1922; included Russia and 14 other soviet socialist =
republics (Ukraine and Byelorussia an others); officially dissolved 31 =
December 1991) Soviet Union during the late (The decade from 1930 to =
1939) 1930s which included a (An act of removing by cleansing; ridding =
of sediment or other undesired elements) purge of the (Click link for =
more info and facts about Communist Party of the Soviet Union) Communist =
Party of the Soviet Union.
Introduction=20
The term "repression" was officially used to denote the prosecution of =
people recognized as counter-revolutionaries and (Click link for more =
info and facts about enemies of the people) enemies of the people. The =
purge was motivated by the desire on the part of the leader****p to =
remove dissident elements from the Party and what is often considered to =
have been a desire to consolidate the authority of (Russian leader who =
succeeded Lenin as head of the Communist Party and created a =
totalitarian state by purging all opposition (1879-1953)) Joseph Stalin. =
Additional campaigns of repression were carried on against social groups =
which opposed the Soviet state and the politics of the Communist Party.
Also, a number of purges were officially explained as an elimination of =
the possibilities of sabotage and espionage, in view of an expected war =
with (A republic in central Europe; split into East German and West =
Germany after World War II and reunited in 1990) Germany. Most public =
attention was focused on the (An act of removing by cleansing; ridding =
of sediment or other undesired elements) purge of the leader****p of the =
Communist Party itself, as well as of government bureaucrats and leaders =
of the armed forces, the vast majority being Party members.
However, the campaigns affected many other categories of the society: =
anti-Soviet elements among the intelligentsia, the wealthier peasants ( =
(Click link for more info and facts about kulak) kulaks), in industry, =
and in trans****t. A series of (Click link for more info and facts about =
NKVD) NKVD (the Soviet secret police) operations affected a number of =
national minorities, perceived as the (A subversive group that sup****ts =
the enemy and engages in espionage or sabotage; an enemy in your midst) =
fifth column.
According to (Soviet statesman and premier who denounced stalin =
(1894-1971)) Khrushchev's 1956 speech, (Click link for more info and =
facts about On the Personality Cult and its Consequences) On the =
Personality Cult and its Consequences and more recent findings, many of =
the accusations, including those presented at (Click link for more info =
and facts about Moscow show trial) Moscow show trials, were based on =
forced ((Roman Catholic Church) the act of a penitent disclosing his =
sinfulness before a priest in the sacrament of penance in the hope of =
absolution) confessions and on loose interpretations of articles of =
(Click link for more info and facts about Article 58 (RSFSR Penal Code)) =
Article 58 (RSFSR Penal Code), which dealt with counter-revolutionary =
crimes. Due legal deliberation was largely replaced with summary =
proceedings by (Click link for more info and facts about NKVD troika) =
NKVD troikas.
Hundreds of thousands were executed by (A squad formed to fire volleys =
at a military funeral or to carry out a military execution) firing squad =
and millions were (Click link for more info and facts about forcibly =
resettled) forcibly resettled or sent to (Click link for more info and =
facts about labor camp) labor camps. The height of the campaigns =
occurred while the NKVD was headed by (Click link for more info and =
facts about Nikolai Yezhov) Nikolai Yezhov, from September 1936 to =
August 1938; this period is sometimes referred to as the Yezhovshchina =
("Yezhov era"). However the campaigns were carried out according to the =
general line, and often by direct orders, of (Click link for more info =
and facts about Party politburo) Party politburo headed by Stalin.
In particular, in 1937 the Politburo issued an order to apply "means of =
physical coercion". Towards the end of the purges, Yezhov was relieved =
from his post, later arrested on charges of (The systematic use of =
spies to get military or political secrets) espionage (proved to be =
false) and (Disloyalty by virtue of subversive behavior) treason, =
tried, found guilty, and shot.
Background
The term " (An act of removing by cleansing; ridding of sediment or =
other undesired elements) purge" in (An elected governmental council in =
a Communist country (especially one that is a member of the Union of =
Soviet Socialist Republics)) Soviet political (Informal language =
consisting of words and expressions that are not considered appropriate =
for formal occasions; often vituperative or vulgar) slang was an =
abbreviation of the expression (Click link for more info and facts =
about purge of the Party ranks) purge of the Party ranks. In 1933, for =
example, some 400,000 people were expelled from the Party. But from 1936 =
until 1953 the term changed its meaning, because being expelled from the =
Party came to mean almost certain arrest, imprisonment or even =
execution.
The background of the Great Purge was the Politburo's desire to =
eliminate all possible sources of opposition. They sought to ensure that =
members of the Party would follow the orders of the center, in strict =
accordance with the principle of (Click link for more info and facts =
about democratic centralism) democratic centralism, rather than =
continuing as the faction-ridden revolutionary party it had been in the =
1920s, and to remove any possible " (A subversive group that sup****ts =
the enemy and engages in espionage or sabotage; an enemy in your midst) =
fifth column" in case of a war. (Click link for more info and facts =
about Vyacheslav Molotov) Vyacheslav Molotov said later that the purge =
and imprisonment of those whose loyalty was suspect was a protection of =
the country in the face of a potential invasion of (The Nazi =
dictator****p under Hitler (1933-1945)) Nazi Germany. The Communist Party =
also wanted to eliminate "socially dangerous elements", such as =
so-called (Click link for more info and facts about ex-kulaks) =
ex-kulaks, former members of opposing political parties such as the =
(Click link for more info and facts about Social Revolutionaries) Social =
Revolutionaries and former Czarist officials.
Repression against actual and perceived enemies of the Bolsheviks had =
been continuous since the October Revolution, although there had been =
periods of heightened repression such as the (Click link for more info =
and facts about Red Terror) Red Terror or the de****tation of (Click =
link for more info and facts about kulak) kulaks who opposed (The =
organization of a nation or economy on the basis of collectivism) =
collectivization. A distinctive feature of the Great Purge was that, for =
the first time, the ruling party itself underwent repressions on a =
massive scale. Nevertheless, only a minority of those affected by the =
purges were Communist Party members and office-holders. The purge of the =
Party was accompanied by the purge of the whole society. The following =
events are used for the demarcation of the period.
The (Click link for more info and facts about First Moscow Trial) First =
Moscow Trial, 1936.
Introduction of (Click link for more info and facts about NKVD troika) =
NKVD troikas for express implementation of "revolutionary justice" in =
1937.
Introduction of (Click link for more info and facts about Article =
58-14) Article 58-14 about "counter-revolutionary sabotage" in 1937.
The Moscow Trials
Main article: (Click link for more info and facts about Moscow Trials) =
Moscow Trials.
Between 1936 and 1938 three (Click link for more info and facts about =
Moscow Trials) Moscow Trials of former senior Communist Party leaders =
were held. The defendants were accused of conspiring with the western =
powers to assassinate Stalin and other Soviet leaders, dismember the =
Soviet Union and restore capitalism.
The first trial was of 16 members of the so-called =
"Trotskyite-Zinovievite Terrorist Centre," held in August 1936, at which =
the chief defendants were (Click link for more info and facts about =
Grigory Zinoviev) Grigory Zinoviev and (Click link for more info and =
facts about Lev Kamenev) Lev Kamenev, two of the most prominent former =
party leaders. All were sentenced to death and executed.
The second trial in January 1937 involved 17 lesser figures including =
(Click link for more info and facts about Karl Radek) Karl Radek, Yuri =
Piatakov and (Click link for more info and facts about Grigory =
Sokolnikov) Grigory Sokolnikov. Thirteen defendants were shot, the =
remainder received terms of imprisonment in labor camps where they soon =
died.
The third trial, in March 1938, included 21 defendants alleged to belong =
to the so-called "Bloc of Rightists and Trotskyites," led by (Click =
link for more info and facts about Nikolai Bukharin) Nikolai Bukharin, =
former head of the (Click link for more info and facts about Communist =
International) Communist International, former Prime Minister (Click =
link for more info and facts about Alexei Rykov) Alexei Rykov, (Click =
link for more info and facts about Christian Rakovsky) Christian =
Rakovsky and (Click link for more info and facts about Nikolai =
Krestinsky) Nikolai Krestinsky. All the leading defendants were =
executed.
There was also a secret trial before a military tribunal of a group of =
(Click link for more info and facts about Red Army) Red Army generals, =
including (Click link for more info and facts about Mikhail =
Tukhachevsky) Mikhail Tukhachevsky, in June 1937.
Most Western observers who attended the trials said that they were fair =
and that the guilt of the accused had been established. They based this =
assessment on the confessions of the accused, which were freely given in =
open court, without any apparent evidence that they had been extracted =
by torture or drugging.
The British lawyer and MP Denis Pritt, for example, wrote: "Once again =
the more faint-hearted socialists are beset with doubts and anxieties," =
but "once again we can feel confident that when the smoke has rolled =
away from the battlefield of controversy it will be realized that the =
charge was true, the confessions correct and the prosecution fairly =
conducted."
In the political atmosphere of the '30s the accusation that there was a =
conspiracy to destroy the Soviet Union was not incredible, and few =
outside observers were aware of the events inside the Communist Party =
that had led to the purge and the trials.
It is now (!?) known that the confessions were given only after great =
psychological pressure had been applied to the defendants. From the =
accounts of former (Click link for more info and facts about OGPU) OGPU =
officer (Click link for more info and facts about Alexander Orlov) =
Alexander Orlov and others the methods used to extract the confessions =
are known: repeated beatings, torture, making prisoners stand or go =
without sleep for days on end, and threats to arrest and execute the =
prisoners' families. For example, Kamenev's teenage son was arrested and =
charged with terrorism. After months of such interrogation, the =
defendants were driven to despair and exhaustion.
Zinoviev and Kamenev demanded as a condition for "confessing" a direct =
guarantee from the Politburo that their lives and that of their families =
would be spared. Instead they had to settle for a meeting with only =
Stalin, (Click link for more info and facts about Kliment Voro****lov) =
Kliment Voro****lov and Yezhov, at which assurances were given. After the =
trial Stalin not only broke his promise to spare the defendants, he had =
most of their relatives arrested and shot. Bukharin also agreed to =
"confess" on condition that his family was spared. In this case the =
promise was partly kept. His wife Anna Larina was sent to a labour camp =
but survived.
--=20
http://therealcuba.com/Dennis.htm
http://therealcuba.com/Page24.htm
------=_NextPart_001_0039_01C5909A.C8048570
Content-Type: text/html;
charset="iso-8859-1"
Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable
<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.0 Transitional//EN">
<HTML><HEAD>
<META http-equiv=3DContent-Type content=3D"text/html; =
charset=3Diso-8859-1">
<META content=3D"MSHTML 6.00.2800.1505" name=3DGENERATOR>
<STYLE></STYLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY bgColor=3D#ffffff>
<DIV>
<DIV> </DIV>
<DIV><A=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/g/gr/great_purge.ht=
m">Click=20
here: Great Purge -- Facts, Info, and Encyclopedia article</A> </DIV>
<DIV> </DIV>
<DIV>
<TABLE style=3D"BORDER-COLLAPSE: collapse" borderColor=3D#111111 =
cellSpacing=3D0=20
cellPadding=3D0 width=3D300 align=3Dright border=3D0 VALIGN=3D"TOP">
<TBODY>
<TR>
<TD width=3D275><BR><BR><BR><BR></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE><BR>
<H1><FONT color=3D#8a8a8a size=3D2> [Categories: Soviet history, =
Soviet=20
phraseology, Soviet political repressions]</FONT><BR><BR><FONT =
size=3D4>The=20
<B>Great Purge</B> is the name given to campaigns of repression in the =
<SPAN=20
class=3DHoverPopup id=3DL1> (A former communist country in eastern =
Europe and=20
northern Asia; established in 1922; included Russia and 14 other soviet=20
socialist republics (Ukraine and Byelorussia an others); officially =
dissolved 31=20
December 1991) </SPAN></FONT><A =
onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L1",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L1")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/s/so/soviet_union.h=
tm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a size=3D4>Soviet Union</FONT></A><FONT size=3D4> during =
the late <SPAN=20
class=3DHoverPopup id=3DL2> (The decade from 1930 to=20
1939) </SPAN></FONT><A onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L2",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L2")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/1/19/1930s.htm"><FO=
NT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a size=3D4>1930s</FONT></A><FONT size=3D4> which included =
a <SPAN=20
class=3DHoverPopup id=3DL3> (An act of removing by cleansing; =
ridding of=20
sediment or other undesired elements) </SPAN></FONT><A=20
onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L3",this,0,25)' onmouseout=3D'hide("L3")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/c/cp/cpsu_purges3.h=
tm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a size=3D4>purge</FONT></A><FONT size=3D4> of the <SPAN =
class=3DHoverPopup=20
id=3DL4> (Click link for more info and facts about Communist Party =
of the=20
Soviet Union) </SPAN></FONT><A =
onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L4",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L4")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/c/co/communist_part=
y_of_the_soviet_union.htm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a size=3D4>Communist Party of the Soviet =
Union</FONT></A><FONT=20
size=3D4>.</FONT><BR>Introduction </H1>The term "repression" was =
officially used=20
to denote the prosecution of people recognized as =
counter-revolutionaries and=20
<SPAN class=3DHoverPopup id=3DL5> (Click link for more info and =
facts about=20
enemies of the people) </SPAN><A =
onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L5",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L5")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/e/en/enemy_of_the_p=
eople.htm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>enemies of the people</FONT></A>. The purge was =
motivated by the=20
desire on the part of the leader****p to remove dissident elements from =
the Party=20
and what is often considered to have been a desire to consolidate the =
authority=20
of <SPAN class=3DHoverPopup id=3DL6> (Russian leader who succeeded =
Lenin as=20
head of the Communist Party and created a totalitarian state by purging =
all=20
opposition (1879-1953)) </SPAN><A =
onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L6",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L6")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/j/jo/joseph_stalin.=
htm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>Joseph Stalin</FONT></A>. Additional campaigns of =
repression were=20
carried on against social groups which opposed the Soviet state and the =
politics=20
of the Communist Party.<BR><BR>Also, a number of purges were officially=20
explained as an elimination of the possibilities of sabotage and =
espionage, in=20
view of an expected war with <SPAN class=3DHoverPopup id=3DL7> (A =
republic in=20
central Europe; split into East German and West Germany after World War =
II and=20
reunited in 1990) </SPAN><A =
onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L7",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L7")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/g/ge/germany.htm"><=
FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>Germany</FONT></A>. Most public attention was focused on =
the <SPAN=20
class=3DHoverPopup id=3DL8> (An act of removing by cleansing; =
ridding of=20
sediment or other undesired elements) </SPAN><A=20
onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L8",this,0,25)' onmouseout=3D'hide("L8")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/c/cp/cpsu_purges3.h=
tm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>purge</FONT></A> of the leader****p of the Communist =
Party itself,=20
as well as of government bureaucrats and leaders of the armed forces, =
the vast=20
majority being Party members.<BR><BR>However, the campaigns affected =
many other=20
categories of the society: anti-Soviet elements among the =
intelligentsia, the=20
wealthier peasants (<SPAN class=3DHoverPopup id=3DL9> (Click link =
for more info=20
and facts about kulak) </SPAN><A =
onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L9",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L9")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/k/ku/kulak.htm"><FO=
NT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>kulak</FONT></A>s), in industry, and in trans****t. A =
series of=20
<SPAN class=3DHoverPopup id=3DL10> (Click link for more info and =
facts about=20
NKVD) </SPAN><A onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L10",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L10")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/n/nk/nkvd3.htm"><FO=
NT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>NKVD</FONT></A> (the Soviet secret police) operations =
affected a=20
number of national minorities, perceived as the <SPAN class=3DHoverPopup =
id=3DL11=20
style=3D"VISIBILITY: hidden"> (A subversive group that sup****ts the =
enemy and=20
engages in espionage or sabotage; an enemy in your midst) </SPAN><A =
onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L11",this,0,25)' onmouseout=3D'hide("L11")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/f/fi/fifth_column.h=
tm"><FONT=20
color=3D#b09d5b>fifth column</FONT></A>.<BR><BR>According to <SPAN=20
class=3DHoverPopup id=3DL12> (Soviet statesman and premier who =
denounced stalin=20
(1894-1971)) </SPAN><A onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L12",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L12")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/n/ni/nikita_khrushc=
hev.htm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>Khrushchev</FONT></A>'s 1956 speech, <SPAN =
class=3DHoverPopup=20
id=3DL13> (Click link for more info and facts about On the =
Personality Cult=20
and its Consequences) </SPAN><A =
onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L13",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L13")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/o/on/on_the_persona=
lity_cult_and_its_consequences.htm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>On the Personality Cult and its Consequences</FONT></A> =
and more=20
recent findings, many of the accusations, including those presented at =
<SPAN=20
class=3DHoverPopup id=3DL14> (Click link for more info and facts =
about Moscow=20
show trial) </SPAN><A onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L14",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L14")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/m/mo/moscow_trials.=
htm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>Moscow show trial</FONT></A>s, were based on forced =
<SPAN=20
class=3DHoverPopup id=3DL15> ((Roman Catholic Church) the act of a =
penitent=20
disclosing his sinfulness before a priest in the sacrament of penance in =
the=20
hope of absolution) </SPAN><A =
onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L15",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L15")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/c/co/confession.htm=
"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>confession</FONT></A>s and on loose interpretations of =
articles of=20
<SPAN class=3DHoverPopup id=3DL16> (Click link for more info and =
facts about=20
Article 58 (RSFSR Penal Code)) </SPAN><A=20
onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L16",this,0,25)' onmouseout=3D'hide("L16")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/a/ar/article_58_(rs=
fsr_penal_code)5.htm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>Article 58 (RSFSR Penal Code)</FONT></A>, which dealt =
with=20
counter-revolutionary crimes. Due legal deliberation was largely =
replaced with=20
summary proceedings by <SPAN class=3DHoverPopup id=3DL17> (Click =
link for more=20
info and facts about NKVD troika) </SPAN><A=20
onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L17",this,0,25)' onmouseout=3D'hide("L17")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/n/nk/nkvd_troika3.h=
tm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>NKVD troika</FONT></A>s.<BR><BR>Hundreds of thousands =
were=20
executed by <SPAN class=3DHoverPopup id=3DL18> (A squad formed to =
fire volleys=20
at a military funeral or to carry out a military =
execution) </SPAN><A=20
onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L18",this,0,25)' onmouseout=3D'hide("L18")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/e/ex/execution_by_f=
iring_squad.htm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>firing squad</FONT></A> and millions were <SPAN =
class=3DHoverPopup=20
id=3DL19> (Click link for more info and facts about forcibly=20
resettled) </SPAN><A onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L19",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L19")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/i/in/involuntary_se=
ttlements_in_the_soviet_union.htm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>forcibly resettled</FONT></A> or sent to <SPAN =
class=3DHoverPopup=20
id=3DL20> (Click link for more info and facts about labor=20
camp) </SPAN><A onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L20",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L20")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/l/la/labor_camp.htm=
"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>labor camp</FONT></A>s. The height of the campaigns =
occurred while=20
the NKVD was headed by <SPAN class=3DHoverPopup id=3DL21> (Click =
link for more=20
info and facts about Nikolai Yezhov) </SPAN><A=20
onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L21",this,0,25)' onmouseout=3D'hide("L21")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/n/ni/nikolai_yezhov=
..htm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>Nikolai Yezhov</FONT></A>, from September 1936 to August =
1938;=20
this period is sometimes referred to as the <B>Yezhovshchina</B> =
("Yezhov era").=20
However the campaigns were carried out according to the general line, =
and often=20
by direct orders, of <SPAN class=3DHoverPopup id=3DL22> (Click link =
for more=20
info and facts about Party politburo) </SPAN><A=20
onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L22",this,0,25)' onmouseout=3D'hide("L22")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/p/po/politburo_of_t=
he_cpsu_central_committee3.htm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>Party politburo</FONT></A> headed by Stalin.<BR><BR>In =
particular,=20
in 1937 the Politburo issued an order to apply <I>"means of physical=20
coercion"</I>. Towards the end of the purges, Yezhov was relieved from =
his post,=20
later arrested on charges of <SPAN class=3DHoverPopup =
id=3DL23> (The systematic=20
use of spies to get military or political secrets) </SPAN><A=20
onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L23",this,0,25)' onmouseout=3D'hide("L23")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/e/es/espionage.htm"=
><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>espionage</FONT></A> (proved to be false) and <SPAN=20
class=3DHoverPopup id=3DL24> (Disloyalty by virtue of subversive=20
behavior) </SPAN><A onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L24",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L24")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/t/tr/treason.htm"><=
FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>treason</FONT></A>, tried, found guilty, and =
shot.<BR><BR>
<H3>Background</H3>The term "<SPAN class=3DHoverPopup id=3DL25> (An =
act of=20
removing by cleansing; ridding of sediment or other undesired=20
elements) </SPAN><A onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L25",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L25")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/p/pu/purge.htm"><FO=
NT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>purge</FONT></A>" in <SPAN class=3DHoverPopup =
id=3DL26> (An=20
elected governmental council in a Communist country (especially one that =
is a=20
member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics)) </SPAN><A=20
onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L26",this,0,25)' onmouseout=3D'hide("L26")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/s/so/soviet_union.h=
tm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>Soviet</FONT></A> political <SPAN class=3DHoverPopup=20
id=3DL27> (Informal language consisting of words and expressions =
that are not=20
considered appropriate for formal occasions; often vituperative or=20
vulgar) </SPAN><A onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L27",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L27")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/s/sl/slang.htm"><FO=
NT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>slang</FONT></A> was an abbreviation of the expression =
<I><SPAN=20
class=3DHoverPopup id=3DL28> (Click link for more info and facts =
about purge of=20
the Party ranks) </SPAN><A =
onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L28",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L28")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/c/cp/cpsu_purges3.h=
tm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>purge of the Party ranks</FONT></A></I>. In 1933, for =
example,=20
some 400,000 people were expelled from the Party. But from 1936 until =
1953 the=20
term changed its meaning, because being expelled from the Party came to =
mean=20
almost certain arrest, imprisonment or even execution.<BR><BR>The =
background of=20
the Great Purge was the Politburo's desire to eliminate all possible =
sources of=20
opposition. They sought to ensure that members of the Party would follow =
the=20
orders of the center, in strict accordance with the principle of <SPAN=20
class=3DHoverPopup id=3DL29> (Click link for more info and facts =
about=20
democratic centralism) </SPAN><A =
onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L29",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L29")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/d/de/democratic_cen=
tralism.htm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>democratic centralism</FONT></A>, rather than continuing =
as the=20
faction-ridden revolutionary party it had been in the 1920s, and to =
remove any=20
possible "<SPAN class=3DHoverPopup id=3DL30> (A subversive group =
that sup****ts=20
the enemy and engages in espionage or sabotage; an enemy in your=20
midst) </SPAN><A onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L30",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L30")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/f/fi/fifth_column.h=
tm"><FONT=20
color=3D#b09d5b>fifth column</FONT></A>" in case of a war. <SPAN =
class=3DHoverPopup=20
id=3DL31> (Click link for more info and facts about Vyacheslav=20
Molotov) </SPAN><A onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L31",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L31")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/v/vy/vyacheslav_mol=
otov.htm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>Vyacheslav Molotov</FONT></A> said later that the purge =
and=20
imprisonment of those whose loyalty was suspect was a protection of the =
country=20
in the face of a potential invasion of <SPAN class=3DHoverPopup =
id=3DL32> (The=20
Nazi dictator****p under Hitler (1933-1945)) </SPAN><A=20
onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L32",this,0,25)' onmouseout=3D'hide("L32")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/n/na/nazi_germany.h=
tm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>Nazi Germany</FONT></A>. The Communist Party also wanted =
to=20
eliminate "socially dangerous elements", such as so-called <SPAN=20
class=3DHoverPopup id=3DL33> (Click link for more info and facts =
about=20
ex-kulaks) </SPAN><A onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L33",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L33")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/k/ku/kulak.htm"><FO=
NT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>ex-kulaks</FONT></A>, former members of opposing =
political parties=20
such as the <SPAN class=3DHoverPopup id=3DL34> (Click link for more =
info and=20
facts about Social Revolutionaries) </SPAN><A=20
onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L34",this,0,25)' onmouseout=3D'hide("L34")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/s/so/socialist-revo=
lutionary_party1.htm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>Social Revolutionaries</FONT></A> and former Czarist=20
officials.<BR><BR>Repression against actual and perceived enemies of the =
Bolsheviks had been continuous since the October Revolution, although =
there had=20
been periods of heightened repression such as the <SPAN =
class=3DHoverPopup=20
id=3DL35> (Click link for more info and facts about Red=20
Terror) </SPAN><A onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L35",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L35")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/r/re/red_terror.htm=
"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>Red Terror</FONT></A> or the de****tation of <SPAN =
class=3DHoverPopup=20
id=3DL36> (Click link for more info and facts about =
kulak) </SPAN><A=20
onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L36",this,0,25)' onmouseout=3D'hide("L36")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/k/ku/kulak.htm"><FO=
NT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>kulak</FONT></A>s who opposed <SPAN class=3DHoverPopup=20
id=3DL37> (The organization of a nation or economy on the basis of=20
collectivism) </SPAN><A onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L37",this,0,25)' =
onmouseout=3D'hide("L37")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/c/co/collectivisati=
on_in_the_ussr3.htm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>collectivization</FONT></A>. A distinctive feature of =
the Great=20
Purge was that, for the first time, the ruling party itself underwent=20
repressions on a massive scale. Nevertheless, only a minority of those =
affected=20
by the purges were Communist Party members and office-holders. The purge =
of the=20
Party was accompanied by the purge of the whole society. The following =
events=20
are used for the demarcation of the period.<BR><IMG=20
src=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/images/enc/arrow1.jpg">The
<SPAN =
class=3DHoverPopup id=3DL38> (Click link for more info and facts =
about First=20
Moscow Trial) </SPAN><A onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L38",this,0,25)' =
onmouseout=3D'hide("L38")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/m/mo/moscow_trials.=
htm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>First Moscow Trial</FONT></A>, 1936.<BR><IMG=20
src=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/images/enc/arrow1.jpg">Introducti=
on of=20
<SPAN class=3DHoverPopup id=3DL39> (Click link for more info and =
facts about=20
NKVD troika) </SPAN><A onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L39",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L39")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/n/nk/nkvd_troika3.h=
tm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>NKVD troika</FONT></A>s for express implementation of=20
"revolutionary justice" in 1937.<BR><IMG=20
src=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/images/enc/arrow1.jpg">Introducti=
on of=20
<SPAN class=3DHoverPopup id=3DL40> (Click link for more info and =
facts about=20
Article 58-14) </SPAN><A =
onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L40",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L40")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/a/ar/article_58_(rs=
fsr_penal_code)5.htm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>Article 58-14</FONT></A> about "counter-revolutionary =
sabotage" in=20
1937.<BR><BR>
<H3>The Moscow Trials</H3><I>Main article: <SPAN class=3DHoverPopup=20
id=3DL41> (Click link for more info and facts about Moscow=20
Trials) </SPAN><A onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L41",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L41")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/m/mo/moscow_trials.=
htm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>Moscow Trials</FONT></A>.</I><BR><BR>Between 1936 and =
1938 three=20
<SPAN class=3DHoverPopup id=3DL42> (Click link for more info and =
facts about=20
Moscow Trials) </SPAN><A =
onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L42",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L42")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/m/mo/moscow_trials.=
htm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>Moscow Trials</FONT></A> of former senior Communist =
Party leaders=20
were held. The defendants were accused of conspiring with the western =
powers to=20
assassinate Stalin and other Soviet leaders, dismember the Soviet Union =
and=20
restore capitalism.<BR><BR><IMG=20
src=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/images/enc/arrow1.jpg">The
first =
trial was=20
of 16 members of the so-called "Trotskyite-Zinovievite Terrorist =
Centre," held=20
in August 1936, at which the chief defendants were <SPAN =
class=3DHoverPopup=20
id=3DL43> (Click link for more info and facts about Grigory=20
Zinoviev) </SPAN><A onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L43",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L43")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/g/gr/grigory_zinovi=
ev.htm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>Grigory Zinoviev</FONT></A> and <SPAN class=3DHoverPopup =
id=3DL44> (Click link for more info and facts about Lev=20
Kamenev) </SPAN><A onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L44",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L44")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/l/le/lev_kamenev.ht=
m"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>Lev Kamenev</FONT></A>, two of the most prominent former =
party=20
leaders. All were sentenced to death and executed.<BR><BR><IMG=20
src=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/images/enc/arrow1.jpg">The
=
second trial in=20
January 1937 involved 17 lesser figures including <SPAN =
class=3DHoverPopup=20
id=3DL45> (Click link for more info and facts about Karl=20
Radek) </SPAN><A onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L45",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L45")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/k/ka/karl_radek.htm=
"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>Karl Radek</FONT></A>, Yuri Piatakov and <SPAN =
class=3DHoverPopup=20
id=3DL46> (Click link for more info and facts about Grigory=20
Sokolnikov) </SPAN><A onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L46",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L46")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/g/gr/grigory_sokoln=
ikov.htm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>Grigory Sokolnikov</FONT></A>. Thirteen defendants were =
shot, the=20
remainder received terms of imprisonment in labor camps where they soon=20
died.<BR><BR><IMG=20
src=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/images/enc/arrow1.jpg">The
third =
trial, in=20
March 1938, included 21 defendants alleged to belong to the so-called =
"Bloc of=20
Rightists and Trotskyites," led by <SPAN class=3DHoverPopup =
id=3DL47> (Click=20
link for more info and facts about Nikolai Bukharin) </SPAN><A=20
onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L47",this,0,25)' onmouseout=3D'hide("L47")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/n/ni/nikolai_bukhar=
in.htm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>Nikolai Bukharin</FONT></A>, former head of the <SPAN=20
class=3DHoverPopup id=3DL48> (Click link for more info and facts =
about=20
Communist International) </SPAN><A=20
onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L48",this,0,25)' onmouseout=3D'hide("L48")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/c/co/comintern.htm"=
><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>Communist International</FONT></A>, former Prime =
Minister <SPAN=20
class=3DHoverPopup id=3DL49> (Click link for more info and facts =
about Alexei=20
Rykov) </SPAN><A onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L49",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L49")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/a/al/alexei_rykov.h=
tm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>Alexei Rykov</FONT></A>, <SPAN class=3DHoverPopup=20
id=3DL50> (Click link for more info and facts about Christian=20
Rakovsky) </SPAN><A onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L50",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L50")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/c/ch/christian_rako=
vsky.htm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>Christian Rakovsky</FONT></A> and <SPAN =
class=3DHoverPopup=20
id=3DL51> (Click link for more info and facts about Nikolai=20
Krestinsky) </SPAN><A onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L51",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L51")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/n/ni/nikolai_kresti=
nsky.htm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>Nikolai Krestinsky</FONT></A>. All the leading =
defendants were=20
executed.<BR><BR><IMG=20
src=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/images/enc/arrow1.jpg">There
was =
also a=20
secret trial before a military tribunal of a group of <SPAN =
class=3DHoverPopup=20
id=3DL52> (Click link for more info and facts about Red =
Army) </SPAN><A=20
onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L52",this,0,25)' onmouseout=3D'hide("L52")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/r/re/red_army.htm">=
<FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>Red Army</FONT></A> generals, including <SPAN =
class=3DHoverPopup=20
id=3DL53> (Click link for more info and facts about Mikhail=20
Tukhachevsky) </SPAN><A onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L53",this,0,25)' =
onmouseout=3D'hide("L53")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/m/mi/mikhail_tukhac=
hevsky.htm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>Mikhail Tukhachevsky</FONT></A>, in June =
1937.<BR><BR>Most Western=20
observers who attended the trials said that they were fair and that the =
guilt of=20
the accused had been established. They based this assessment on the =
confessions=20
of the accused, which were freely given in open court, without any =
apparent=20
evidence that they had been extracted by torture or drugging.<BR><BR>The =
<U>British lawyer and MP Denis Prit</U>t, for example, wrote: "Once =
again the=20
more faint-hearted socialists are beset with doubts and anxieties," but =
"once=20
again we can feel confident that when the smoke has rolled away from the =
battlefield of controversy it will be realized that the charge was true, =
the=20
confessions correct and the prosecution fairly conducted."<BR><BR>In the =
political atmosphere of the '30s the accusation that there was a =
conspiracy to=20
destroy the Soviet Union was not incredible, and few outside observers =
were=20
aware of the events inside the Communist Party that had led to the purge =
and the=20
trials.<BR><BR>It is <U>now (!?)</U> known that <U>the confessions were =
given=20
only after great psychological pressure had been applied to the =
defendants</U>.=20
From the accounts of former <SPAN class=3DHoverPopup id=3DL54=20
style=3D"VISIBILITY: hidden"> (Click link for more info and facts =
about=20
OGPU) </SPAN><A onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L54",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L54")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/s/st/state_politica=
l_directorate.htm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>OGPU</FONT></A> officer <SPAN class=3DHoverPopup =
id=3DL55> (Click=20
link for more info and facts about Alexander Orlov) </SPAN><A=20
onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L55",this,0,25)' onmouseout=3D'hide("L55")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/a/al/alexander_orlo=
v.htm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>Alexander Orlov</FONT></A> and others the <U>methods =
used to=20
extract the confessions are known: repeated beatings, torture, making =
prisoners=20
stand or go without sleep for days on end, and threats to arrest and =
execute the=20
prisoners' families</U>. For example, <U>Kamenev's teenage son was =
arrested and=20
charged with terrorism</U>. After months of such interrogation, the =
defendants=20
were driven to despair and exhaustion.<BR><BR>Zinoviev and Kamenev =
demanded as a=20
condition for "confessing" a <U>direct guarantee from the Politburo that =
their=20
lives and that of their families would be spare</U>d. Instead they had =
to settle=20
for a meeting with only Stalin, <SPAN class=3DHoverPopup id=3DL56=20
style=3D"VISIBILITY: hidden"> (Click link for more info and facts =
about=20
Kliment Voro****lov) </SPAN><A =
onmouseover=3D'showByLink("L56",this,0,25)'=20
onmouseout=3D'hide("L56")'=20
href=3D"http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/encyclopedia/k/kl/kliment_vorosh=
ilov.htm"><FONT=20
color=3D#8a8a8a>Kliment Voro****lov</FONT></A> and Yezhov, at which =
assurances were=20
given. <U>After the trial Stalin not only broke his promise to spare the =
defendants, he had most of their relatives arrested and shot.</U> =
<U>Bukharin=20
also agreed to "confess" on condition that his family was spared</U>. In =
this=20
case the promise was partly kept. <U>His wife Anna Larina was sent to a =
labour=20
camp</U> but survived.</DIV></DIV><STRONG><FONT face=3DArial size=3D2>
<DIV><BR>-- <BR> <A=20
href=3D"http://therealcuba.com/Dennis.htm">http://therealcuba.com/Dennis.=
htm</A></DIV>
<DIV> </DIV>
<DIV><A=20
href=3D"http://therealcuba.com/Page24.htm">http://therealcuba.com/Page24.=
htm</A></DIV>
<DIV> </DIV>
<DIV></FONT></STRONG> </DIV></BODY></HTML>
------=_NextPart_001_0039_01C5909A.C8048570--
------=_NextPart_000_0038_01C5909A.C8048570
Content-Type: image/jpeg;
name="arrow1.jpg"
Content-Transfer-Encoding: base64
Content-Location: http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/images/enc/arrow1.jpg
/9j/4AAQSkZJRgABAgEASABIAAD//gEC//////////8AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAB
AAAAAAAAADBp53MAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAoAAAABAAAAAQAAAAAAAACoU9UEAAAAAAAA
AAABAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAXALABwQAAAJAAAAD4GIUD+BiFAwAAAAAwZNoDjOra
A/D32gNBAAAAmOraA+gYhQPoGIUD****aAzDh2gNI4doDsOraA/Dy3AOg6toDvOraAwBh2wMwAAAA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------=_NextPart_000_0038_01C5909A.C8048570--
|
